Comprehensive Timeline of Ancient Indian History: Pre-Harappan to the Post-Gupta Era

1. Prehistoric Era (c. 2 Million BCE – 3300 BCE)

This period marks the evolution of early humans and the transition from hunting-gathering to settled farming.

• Palaeolithic Period (c. 2 Million – 10,000 BCE): Use of rough stone tools; discovery of fire. Key sites include Bhimbetka (rock shelters) and the Narmada Valley.

• Mesolithic Period (c. 10,000 – 8,000 BCE): Use of microliths (small stone tools); beginning of animal domestication.

• Neolithic Period (c. 8,000 – 3,300 BCE): Introduction of agriculture, polished stone tools, and pottery. Mehrgarh (in modern-day Pakistan) is one of the earliest farming villages.

2. Proto-History: The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300 – 1300 BCE)

Known as the Bronze Age of India, this was the first urbanisation of the subcontinent.

• Early Harappan Phase (3300 – 2600 BCE): Initial transition to urban life; early scripts and trade networks.

• Mature Harappan Phase (2600 – 1900 BCE): The peak of the civilisation with planned cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, and Dholavira. Known for advanced drainage and metallurgy.

• Late Harappan Phase (1900 – 1300 BCE): Gradual decline, possibly due to climate change or shifting river courses.

3. The Vedic Period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)

The arrival/emergence of Indo-Aryan cultures and the composition of the foundational texts of Hinduism.

• Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE): Composition of the Rigveda. Society was semi-nomadic and tribal (Janas).

• Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BCE): Transition to settled agriculture; use of iron tools. Emergence of the caste system (Varna) and kingdoms like Kuru and Panchala.

4. The Second Urbanisation & Mahajanapadas (c. 600 – 322 BCE)

A period of intense intellectual and political ferment.

• 600 BCE: Emergence of the 16 Mahajanapadas (Great Kingdoms).

• Rise of Religions: Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (Jainism) and Gautama Buddha (Buddhism).

• Magadha Supremacy: Rise of the Haryanka, Shishunaga, and Nanda dynasties.

• 326 BCE: Invasion of India by Alexander the Great.

5. The Mauryan Empire (c. 322 – 185 BCE)

The first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent.

• 322 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya founds the empire with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya).

• 268 – 232 BCE: Reign of Ashoka the Great. After the Kalinga War, he converted to Buddhism and spread its message through rock and pillar edicts.

• 185 BCE: The last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, is assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga.

6. Post-Mauryan Period & Middle Kingdoms (c. 185 BCE – 320 CE)

A period of regional kingdoms and foreign incursions.

• North/Central India: Shunga (185–73 BCE) and Kanva (73–28 BCE) dynasties.

• South India: Rise of the Satavahana Empire and the Sangam Age (Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas).

• Foreign Invasions: Arrival of the Indo-Greeks, Shakas (Scythians), and Parthians.

• Kushan Empire (c. 30 – 375 CE): Reached its peak under Kanishka, who patronised Buddhism and the Gandhara school of art.

7. The Gupta Empire: The Golden Age (c. 320 – 550 CE)

Characterised by immense progress in science, mathematics, and Sanskrit literature.

• 320 CE: Chandragupta I founds the Gupta era.

• Samudragupta: Known as the "Indian Napoleon" for his extensive conquests.

• Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya): A patron of the "Nine Gems" (including Kalidasa).

• Innovations: Development of the decimal system, the concept of zero, and the Aryabhatiya.

8. Post-Gupta & Early Medieval Transition (c. 550 – 750 CE)

The decentralisation of power and the rise of powerful regional dynasties.

• Vardhana Dynasty: Harshavardhana (606–647 CE) briefly unified Northern India.

• Deccan & South: Rise of the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.

• 712 CE: The Arab conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim, marking the beginning of the end of the "Ancient" era.